English Grammar in Use

Notation: V = base verb, V-ing = present participle, V-ed = past simple, V-pp = past participle, S = subject.

Tenses

Present continuous — S + am/are/is + V-ing

• happening now, or around now (today, this week, this year, …)
• temporary situations (not permanent) — “I’m living with friends until I find a flat”
• a change that has started to happen
  • getting, becoming
  • changing, improving
  • starting, beginning
  • increasing, rising, falling, growing
• always + V-ing → complaint / annoyance (“You’re always losing your keys”)
• am/are/is + being → behaviour now, not permanent character (“He’s being rude” vs “He is rude”)

Present simple — S + V(-s)

• facts, permanent situations, habits, repeated actions
• 3rd person singular adds -s/-es; use do/does for negatives and questions
• position of frequency adverbs (always, usually, often, sometimes, never): before the main verb, after be
• these state verbs are normally not used in continuous form:
  • apologize, advise, insist, agree, refuse, suggest
  • like, want, need, prefer
  • know, realize, understand, recognize
  • believe, suppose, remember, mean
  • belong, fit, contain, consist, seem
  • think (= consider) · but “I’m thinking” (= considering) is fine
  • see, hear, smell, taste, look, feel

Present perfect — S + have/has + V-pp

• how many / how much? → a completed action with a present result
• a state or repeated action continuing up to now (with for/since) — “I’ve known her for years”
• markers: just (a short time ago), already (before expected), yet (until now — negative/question)
• also: ever, never, recently, lately, so far, up to now, in the last few days
• superlatives & “first time” take present perfect — “It’s the best film I’ve ever seen”, “This is the first time I’ve driven here”
• have/has been to = visited and come back ; have/has gone to = went and is still there
• do not use with finished past time: yesterday, last year, when I was young, …
  • (American English often uses past simple with just/already/yet)

Present perfect continuous — S + have/has been + V-ing

• how long? → an activity that has been happening (may still be going, or just stopped)
• use for (period) / since (starting point) to say how long
• emphasizes the activity/duration; present perfect simple emphasizes the result/completion
  • “I’ve been reading this book” (activity) vs “I’ve read this book” (finished)

Past simple — S + V-ed

• finished action at a definite past time; chronological order
• regular verbs + -ed; many common verbs are irregular
• did for negatives and questions (“Did you go?”, “I didn’t go”)

Past continuous — S + was/were + V-ing

• a longer background action in progress in the past
• something happened (past simple) in the middle of something else (past continuous)
• two long actions at the same time — “While I was cooking, she was reading”

Past perfect — S + had + V-pp

• an action completed before another past action (an “earlier past”)
• makes non-linear order clear — “The train had left when we arrived”
• common in reported speech and after when/because/after

Past perfect continuous — S + had been + V-ing

• how long an activity had been going on up to a point in the past
• “He was tired because he had been working all day”

have / have got

• for possession, relationship, illness, appointment — not for actions/experiences
• have got is more informal, mainly present tense
• for actions we do use have (not have got): have breakfast, have a shower, have a look, have a good time — these can be continuous (“I’m having lunch”)

used to — S + used to + V

• I did it often / it was true in the past, but not any more
• past only — there is no present form (use present simple instead)
• negative/question: didn't use to / did you use to ...?
• ≠ be used to (§ used to, below) — different meaning

if / when (future time clauses)

• when/while/before/after/as soon as/until + present simple = future time (don’t use will in the clause)
• when + present perfect = one thing completes before the other — “I’ll call when I’ve finished”
• if = uncertain; when = certain it will happen

The future

Present tenses for the future

• present continuous → a fixed arrangement (time/place decided) — “I’m meeting Tom at 8”
• present simple → timetables, programmes, schedules — “The train leaves at 9”

going to — S + (be) going to + V

• a prior intention / plan (arranged or not)
• a prediction based on present evidence — “Look at those clouds — it’s going to rain”

will / shall — S + will/shall + V

• a decision made at the moment of speaking; offering, agreeing, promising, refusing
• predictions/opinions about the future (think, expect, probably, I’m sure)
• will vs going to: going to = already decided; will = decided now
• shall I / shall we ...? for offers and suggestions

Future continuous — S + will be + V-ing

• I will be in the middle of an action at a future time
• also for something that will happen in the normal course of events — “I’ll be seeing her tomorrow”

Future perfect — S + will have + V-pp

• it will already be complete before a time in the future — “By 2030 they will have finished”

Modal verbs

Modal	Epistemic (probability)	Deontic (obligation / permission)
must	logical deduction (“It must be raining.”)	absolute obligation (“You must stop.”)
can	general possibility (“It can get cold here.”)	permission / ability (“Can I go?” / “I can drive.”)
could	weak possibility (“It could rain.”)	past ability / polite request (“Could you help?“)
may	factual possibility (“He may accept the job.”)	formal permission (“May I enter?“)
might	remote possibility (“They might lose.”)	very formal permission (“Might I suggest …?“)
should	expectation (“They should be here soon.”)	advice / weak obligation (“You should eat healthier.”)
will	certain prediction (“The sun will rise.”)	volition / intent (“I will help you.”)
would	hypothetical probability (“That would be difficult.”)	past habit / conditional (“I would go if I had time.”)

• modals take the bare infinitive (no to) and don’t change form (no -s, no did)
• past form = modal + have + V-pp (must have, could have, should have, …)

can / could / (be) able to

• something is possible or allowed; somebody has the ability to do it
• can has no future/infinitive form → use be able to (“I’ll be able to”, “I’d like to be able to”)
• could (general past ability) ≠ was/were able to (= managed to, on a specific occasion)
• could have done = it was possible but didn’t happen

must / can’t (deduction)

• must = I’m sure it’s true ; can't = I’m sure it’s not true
• past: must have done / can't have done

may / might

• something is possible (perhaps ~50/50)
• may be (verb) ≠ maybe (adverb = perhaps)
• could ≈ may/might; but couldn't (impossible) is stronger than may/might not (perhaps not)
• use might (not may) when the situation is imaginary/unreal
• may/might as well do = do it because there’s no better alternative

have to / must / need

• must (speaker’s own authority/feeling) vs have to (external rules/facts); have to is more common in questions & past
• mustn't = it is forbidden (don’t do it)
• don't have to = needn't = not necessary (but allowed) — note the different meaning from mustn't
• needn't have done = did it, but it wasn’t necessary ; didn't need to do = wasn’t necessary (may or may not have done it)

should / ought to / had better

• should = ought to = the right/sensible thing to do (advice, opinion, expectation)
• should have done = didn’t do the right thing ; shouldn't have done = did something wrong
• use should after:
  • insist, demand, recommend, suggest, propose (that …)
  • adjectives: strange, odd, funny, typical, natural, interesting, surprised, surprising
• had better (do) = advisable for a specific situation now, or there’ll be a problem — stronger/more urgent than should

would

• imagining a situation/action (not real); would have done for the unreal past
• past repeated actions/habits (like used to, but only for actions) — “When we were kids, we would play outside”
• would you mind ...?, I would think/imagine ... (polite/tentative)

it’s time

• it's time (for somebody) to do — “It’s time to go”
• it's time somebody did (past form, present meaning) — “It’s time you went home”

Conditional sentences

Zero conditional — general truth / always true

• if S + V, S + V — “If you heat ice, it melts”

1st conditional — real / likely future

• if S + V, S will + V
• something likely to happen; a decision — “If it rains, we’ll stay in”
• will can be replaced by can/may/might/should/imperative

2nd conditional — unreal / unlikely present or future

• if S + V-ed, S would/could/might + V
• something we don’t expect to happen, or imaginary — “If I won the lottery, I’d travel”
• use were for all persons in careful/formal English — “If I were you …“

3rd conditional — unreal past

• if S + had + V-pp, S would/could/might have + V-pp
• something that didn’t happen in the past — “If I had known, I would have called”

Mixed conditional

• past condition → present result: if S + had + V-pp, S would + V — “If I had taken the job, I’d be rich now”

unless / other links

• unless = if … not — “I won’t go unless you come”
• also: as long as, provided/providing (that), in case, otherwise, even if

wish / if only

• wish/if only + V-ed → regret about the present — “I wish I had a car”
• wish/if only + had + V-pp → regret about the past — “I wish I had studied”
• wish/if only + would → complaint / wanting something/somebody to change — “I wish it would stop raining”
• I wish I could do = I regret I can’t ; I wish I could have done = I regret I couldn’t
• wish vs hope: wish = unreal/regret ; hope + present/will = a real future possibility (“I hope it doesn’t rain”)

Passive

• be + V-pp — the object of the active becomes the subject; use it when the doer is unknown, obvious, or unimportant
• name the doer with by only when it adds information — “It was written by Orwell”
• forms in every tense: is done / is being done / was done / has been done / will be done / can be done / to be done / being done
• verbs with two objects can passivize either — “I was given a book” / “A book was given to me”
• get passive for things that happen (often unexpected/informal) — “got broken”, “got stolen”
• reporting-verb passives:
  • It is said/believed/thought that ...
  • S + is said/believed/thought + to (do/have done) — “He is said to be rich”

Reported speech

• say (no person, or say to somebody) vs tell (tell somebody) — “He said (that) …” / “He told me (that) …”
• backshift (main verb one tense back): am/is→was, do→did, have done→had done, will→would, can→could, must→had to
  • if the situation is still true, backshift is optional
• pronouns, and time/place words shift: now→then, today→that day, tomorrow→the next day, here→there, this→that
• reported questions keep statement word order, no do, no ? — “She asked where I lived”, “He asked if/whether I was ready”
• reported commands/requests: tell/ask + somebody + to (do) — “She told me to wait”, “He asked me not to go”
• other reporting verbs: offer/promise/agree/refuse + to, suggest/admit + V-ing, apologise for, insist that
• supposed to = intended / arranged / expected (but different from reality) — “You’re supposed to be working”
• have/get + something + V-pp = arrange for somebody to do it for you — “I had my car repaired”

Questions

• statement S + V → question (aux/be) + S + V; add do/does/did when there’s no auxiliary
• subject questions (who/what/which asks about the subject): no do, normal word order — “Who broke the window?”
• in Wh-questions, prepositions usually go at the end — “Where are you from?”, “What are you looking at?”
• negative questions:
  • show surprise — “Didn’t you know?”
  • suggestions with “Why don’t …?” — “Why don’t we eat out tonight?”
  • answering: “Don’t you want to go?” → “Yes (I want to)” / “No (I don’t)”
• indirect / embedded questions keep statement word order, no do — “Do you know where Tom has gone?” (not where has Tom gone)

Auxiliary verbs

• used to avoid repeating the main verb, to deny, or to show interest/surprise — “I haven’t finished.” “Oh, haven’t you?”
• so / neither (nor) for agreeing: so + aux + S (positive) / neither + aux + S (negative)
  • “I’m tired.” — “So am I.” / “I can’t swim.” — “Neither can I.”
• question tags: positive statement, negative tag ; negative statement, positive tag
  • “It’s cold, isn’t it?” / “You don’t like it, do you?”
  • I am → tag aren't I? ; imperative → will you? ; “Let’s” → shall we?
  • falling intonation = expecting agreement; rising = a real question

Verb + V-ing / to-infinitive

Verb + V-ing

• stop, recommend, avoid, imagine, finish, consider, risk, fancy, enjoy, deny, admit, suggest, mind, postpone, miss, practise
• give up, put off, go on, carry on, keep (on)
• S + V + having done → to stress a finished action (“He admitted having stolen it”)

Verb + to-infinitive

• offer, plan, manage, deserve, agree, arrange, fail, afford, refuse, hope, promise, learn, decide, forget, threaten, tend, expect, want, would like
• seem, appear, pretend, claim

Verb + question word + to-infinitive

• ask, know, decide, remember, forget, learn, explain, understand, wonder — “We asked how to get to the station”
• show, tell, ask, advise, teach + somebody + what/how/where to do

Verb + object + to-infinitive

• tell, advise, remind, warn, invite, encourage, persuade, get, force, teach, allow, enable + somebody + to …
• make / let + somebody + V (no to) — but passive be made to do takes to
• help takes to-infinitive or bare infinitive (“helped me (to) move”)

V-ing vs to-infinitive — meaning changes

• remember / forget — -ing: recall a past action · to: remember/forget to do it (before doing)
• regret — -ing: sorry about a past action · to: sorry to say (bad news) now
• go on — -ing: continue the same thing · to: move on to something new
• try — -ing: do it as an experiment/test · to: make an effort/attempt (something difficult)
• stop — -ing: end the activity · to: pause in order to do something
• mean — -ing: involve/result in · to: intend to
• need — to do (active) · -ing = passive meaning (“The car needs washing” = needs to be washed)

V-ing vs to-infinitive — little/no meaning change

• begin, start, continue, intend, bother, can’t bear
• like, love, hate, prefer — use -ing for a situation that already exists / enjoyment
• would like/love/hate/prefer + to
  • would like to have done = I regret I didn’t/couldn’t do it
  • would rather + V (bare) = would prefer to ; would rather + S + V-ed for another person (“I’d rather you didn’t”)

used to / be used to

• used to + V = did it regularly in the past, but no longer
• be used to + something / V-ing = accustomed to it; it isn’t new/strange — “I’m used to driving here”
• get used to + V-ing = become accustomed

Preposition + V-ing

• any verb after a preposition takes -ing
• V + (object) + preposition + V-ing:
  • talk about, apologise for, approve of, decide against, dream of, feel like, insist on, look forward to, succeed in, think of/about
  • accuse … of, congratulate … on, prevent … from, stop … from, suspect … of, thank … for, blame … for
• there's no point/use/good (in) + V-ing ; it's (not) worth + V-ing
• have trouble/difficulty/a problem (in) + V-ing
• spend/waste (time/money) + V-ing
• go + V-ing for sports/activities (go swimming, go shopping)
• note: to is a preposition (→ -ing) in: look forward to, be used to, object to, in addition to

Adjective + to-infinitive

• hard, easy, nice, safe, cheap, exciting, impossible, difficult, good, dangerous, expensive, interesting
• it's + adjective + of somebody + to: kind, generous, careless, silly, stupid, inconsiderate, unfair, typical, nice
• adjective + to (hear/see/know): sorry, surprised, glad, pleased, relieved, amazed, sad, disappointed
• the first/next/last/only + to do — “She was the first to arrive”
• sure / likely / bound / due to
• afraid
  • afraid to do = don’t want to because it’s dangerous / the result could be bad
  • afraid of something happening = worried something bad will happen
• interested
  • interested in doing = would like to do it
  • interested to do (hear/see/know) = it was interesting for me
• sorry
  • sorry for/about doing = apologise for something done
  • sorry to do/say = regret something happening now

see / hear somebody do vs doing

• saw somebody do = saw the complete action (start to finish)
• saw somebody doing = saw them in the middle of it (incomplete / in progress)
• same pattern with hear, watch, feel, listen to, notice

-ing and -ed participle clauses

• -ing clause: two things at the same time, or one during another — “She sat reading a book”
• having done / after V-ing when one action comes before another
• -ed clause = passive meaning — “The man injured in the accident was taken to hospital”